A standardised auditing framework of economic, environmental, and social impact of utility-scale solar farms

The rapid worldwide deployment of utility-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems highlights the need for an integrated concept to evaluate their multidimensional sustainability performance. This study introduces a novel auditing protocol that combines economic, environmental, and social benchmarks into a standardised module, addressing the current fragmented approaches. Realistic benchmarks are conceived by methodically synthesising industry datasets, peer-reviewed literature, and regulatory guidelines. With a payback period of 4 to 8 years and a benchmark LCOE between RM 0.24 and RM 0.48/kWh, economic analysis confirms strong financial viability under current market conditions. Financial viability is indicated by benefit-cost ratios greater than 1.0. Environmental audits suggest a biodiversity restoration goal of at least 1000 trees replanted per MW and quantify a carbon mitigation potential of 700–800 tonnes of CO 2 /MW/year. A benchmark of 20 L per MWh is used to regulate water consumption, encouraging careful resource management. A minimum workforce ratio of 0.7 workers/MW, or roughly 35 employees for a 50 MW facility, is recommended by the Labour Sufficiency Index, which is established by social assessment. This will guarantee beneficial labour practices and operational stability. Additionally, the study offers focused mitigation strategies in every aspect, such as advanced photovoltaic technologies, integration of agrivoltaics, passive cooling systems, and rainwater harvesting measures. Comparability, accountability, and decision-making are enhanced by incorporating these sustainability metrics into a scalable and cohesive framework. The proposed approach provides solar engineers, researchers, developers, and policymakers with evidence-based decision-making for sustainability assessment and performance tracking of utility-scale PV systems.