Urban park surface cooling and perceived coolness in a severe cold-region city

Abstract Global warming and rapid urbanisation are intensifying summer heat risks in severe cold-region cities. However, factors associated with park surface cooling and its alignment with perceived coolness remain unclear. For 38 urban parks in Harbin, we integrated Landsat images, landscape metrics, built-environment indicators, and questionnaire data to quantify park cooling intensity (PCI), identify associated factors, and compare surface cooling with perceived coolness. Park-level correspondence between PCI and perceived coolness was partial, consistent with their distinct dimensions and temporal mismatch. PCI varied substantially among parks, averaging 1.93 °C, with several showing non-positive values. Higher PCI was associated with greater vegetation cover and forest-patch dominance, whereas higher NDBI and landscape fragmentation were associated with lower PCI. Negative building-height associations with PCI persisted across multivariable sensitivity models, although significance varied by specification. Relative divergence between PCI and perceived coolness may partly reflect differences in spatial overlap between shaded or waterside spaces, walking routes, and resting areas frequently used by visitors. Park renewal should improve vegetation structure and canopy continuity while coordinating shaded routes, waterside areas, and accessible resting and activity spaces. Comparing these complementary indicators at the park scale can support more targeted, summer-oriented, and perception-informed park planning in severe cold-region cities.