Advances in carbon material synthesis for energy storage and sustainable development: an ESG aligned perspective

Carbon-based materials have gained attention as promising materials for energy storage applications due to their exceptional electrical conductivity, tunable porosity, chemical stability, and structural adaptability. This review discusses recent progress in the synthesis, characterization, and application of both conventional and biomass-derived carbon materials for sustainable energy systems. Traditional carbon materials, such as activated carbon and graphite, have been extensively utilised in batteries and supercapacitors; however, their reliance on non-renewable resources raises environmental concerns. In contrast, biomass-derived carbons provide a renewable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly alternative by converting agricultural and forestry residues into electrode materials. Thermochemical processes, including pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonisation, and chemical activation, enable precise control over pore architecture, surface functionality, and heteroatom doping, thus improving charge storage, ion transport, electrochemical performance, and charge storage capacity. Furthermore, advanced nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon dots derived from biomass expand functional capabilities by providing superior conductivity, catalytic activity, and photoluminescence. These materials demonstrate significant potential in supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, with reported improvements in energy density, cycling stability, and catalytic activity in selected material and device configurations compared with conventional counterparts. Through waste valorisation, life cycle assessments further emphasise the lower environmental impact of carbon obtained from biomass, complementing the concepts of the circular economy. Despite challenges related to scalability, conductivity optimisation, and structural uniformity, ongoing research in activation strategies, heteroatom incorporation, and hybrid material design continues to advance their performance. Overall, biomass-based carbon materials represent a promising path towards high-performance and environmentally sustainable solutions for energy storage.