Mycotoxin contamination in food and feed: Occurrence, co-occurrence, combined impacts on human and animal health, climate change implications, risk assessment, and mitigation strategies

Abstract Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by numerous fungi that infect crops during pre- and post-harvest stages. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, and trichothecenes are of greatest concern due to their widespread occurrence and high toxicity. Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed poses serious public health risks, as these compounds are linked to carcinogenic, neurotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and immunotoxic effects. The frequent co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins further amplifies health risks through additive or synergistic interactions and contributes to substantial economic losses. This review provides an updated overview of the global distribution and co-occurrence of major mycotoxins in agricultural products, their individual and combined toxicological effects on human and animal health, and the regulatory standards and maximum permitted levels for mycotoxins in food and feed. In addition, this review discusses the impact of climate change on mycotoxin contamination in food and feed, exposure, and associated health risks. It further outlines mycotoxin risk assessment procedures and highlights mitigation strategies for reducing contamination and limiting human and animal exposure risks. Ultimately, this review underscores the urgent need for integrated mycotoxin risk management strategies and strengthened global surveillance systems to safeguard food safety, protect human and animal health, and enhance food security.