Non-immersive, mixed or virtual reality? a comparative evaluation of physiological and psychological responses to boxing training across digital environments: exercise intensity, activity satisfaction, flow state, and sense of presence

Abstract Digital reality technologies are increasingly utilised to support physical activity (PA); however, limited evidence is available regarding differences in exercise intensity and subjective user experience across environments with varying levels of immersion. The aim of this study was to conduct a multidimensional evaluation of boxing training performed in three digital environments: non-immersive virtual reality (nIVR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR). Forty healthy university students participated in the study and completed three 10-min trials under a fully counterbalancing of condition order. Exercise intensity was assessed using heart rate monitoring (HR), and ratings of perceived exertion. In addition, satisfaction with physical activity, level of engagement (flow state), and sense of presence were evaluated. The type of digital environment significantly affected exercise intensity as measured by HR, with statistically significant differences observed between the nIVR and VR conditions. Nevertheless, exercise intensity reached at least a moderate level across all environments. No significant differences were found in perceived exertion. Training conducted in VR and MR was associated with higher levels of satisfaction, flow, and sense of presence compared to the non-immersive condition, with no significant differences observed between the two immersive environments. These findings suggest that boxing training in digital reality environments may represent an engaging form of PA, and that MR may serve as a viable alternative to conventional VR.