Tourism as soft power: a configurational analysis of nation branding in constrained geopolitical contexts

Purpose This study investigates how tourism functions as a soft power mechanism amid geopolitical constraints, examining the configurational conditions under which tourism practices enhance nation branding effectiveness (NBET). Focusing on Iran as an illustrative transitional case, the study addresses the limited theorisation of nation branding under conditions of sanctions, reputational volatility and institutional fragmentation. Design/methodology/approach An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was employed. Phase 1 involved 21 in-depth interviews with tourism policymakers and destination experts to generate grounded constructs. Phase 2 surveyed 168 stakeholders and applied fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to identify equifinal configurations leading to NBET. Findings Six causal pathways to NBET emerged. Authenticity and cultural identity function as necessary but insufficient conditions, becoming effective only when combined with institutional coordination, ethical governance or political stability. Community co-creation and values-based stewardship offer compensatory pathways in resource constrained settings. Technological capability is not a core condition, suggesting that digital tools enhance branding only when embedded within coherent institutional and cultural architectures. Research limitations/implications Findings derive from a specific, constrained geopolitical setting, which limits their broad statistical applicability; however, the configurational framework can be applied analytically to other politically unstable locations. Practical implications The findings highlight the need for sustained policy consistency, coordinated governance across sectors and community involvement in order to enhance tourism-driven soft power. Policymakers should formalise inter agency collaboration, protect cultural authenticity through regulation and community participation and incorporate digital tools into unified national communication plans. Approaches rooted in core values, focusing on ethics, environmental sustainability and community wellbeing, offer practical branding strategies for states experiencing geopolitical challenges. Originality/value This research contributes to the nation branding literature by, first, reconceptualising authenticity as an institutionally mediated structural mechanism; second, empirically identifying a governance paradox in community driven branding; third, foregrounding institutional coordination and political stability as credibility foundations; fourth, refuting techno-determinism by demonstrating that digital capacity is conditional capital; and fifth, presenting the first configurational model of tourism-led soft power under sanctions. The findings offer a policy relevant framework for countries aiming to use tourism as a tool for nation branding amid political instability.