Pesticide use safety practices and knowledge gaps among small-scale farmers, retailers and healthcare providers in Tanzania

Agriculture is a cornerstone of Tanzania’s economy, with most production driven by small-scale farmers. In efforts to manage pest-related crop losses, pesticide use has increased significantly, heightening concerns related to human health, environmental sustainability, and regulatory compliance. This study examines knowledge gaps, practices, and systemic factors influencing pesticide risk reduction among small-scale farmers, pesticide retailers, and healthcare providers in five agriculturally significant regions of Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Arusha, Iringa, Morogoro, Mwanza, and Shinyanga, purposively selected for their agricultural productivity and diversity. Data were collected via semi-structured questionnaires from 528 farmers, 102 pesticide retailers, and 64 healthcare providers. A composite Knowledge Score (0–10 points) and Safety Practice Index (0–8 points) were constructed and validated. Participants were categorized into Low (0–4), Medium (5–7), and High (8–10) knowledge groups. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and binary logistic regression with R Statistical Package (4.3.1). Findings revealed considerable regional and demographic variation. Most respondents were male (78.7%) with primary-level education (69.7%). Only 21.9% of farmers reported formal pesticide risk reduction training. The mean Knowledge Score was 4.2 ± 1.8, with 58.3% of farmers categorized as “Low Knowledge.” Farmers with training were 3.2 times more likely to demonstrate safe practices (OR = 3.24, 95% CI: 2.1-5.0, p < 0.001). Pesticide sellers were more gender-balanced but had uneven training coverage (62.1% trained). Most farmers sourced pesticides from licensed retailers (95%), yet unsafe disposal of empty containers (leaving on-site 45.4% or burning 30.9%) were common. Technical information was mainly acquired from pesticide sellers (53.2%) and product labels (43.8%). Healthcare providers reported frequent pesticide exposure cases (58.8%), particularly in Iringa, but 93.5% lacked formal training in managing poisoning incidents. Logistic regression identified lack of training (OR = 2.87, 95% CI: 1.8–4.6), low knowledge (OR = 2.34, 95% CI: 1.5–3.7), and primary education only (OR = 1.89, 95% CI: 1.2-3.0) as significant predictors of unsafe disposal practices. Gender-disaggregated analysis revealed female farmers had significantly lower training access (13.4% vs. 24.3%, p = 0.008) and knowledge scores (3.8 vs. 4.4, p = 0.005) compared to males. The study reveals significant gaps in pesticide risk-reduction knowledge, training, and practice among smallholder farmers and related sectors in Tanzania. Key recommendations include expanding practical training, strengthening regulatory enforcement, improving pesticide waste disposal, and enhancing cross-sectoral coordination. Addressing gender and regional disparities is essential for inclusive progress.