Epidemiology, risk factors, and spatio-temporal distribution of lumpy skin disease in cattle in northern Bangladesh

Objective: Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging transboundary viral disease that causes substantial economic losses in cattle production worldwide.Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the epidemiology, risk factors, and spatial-temporal distribution through molecular detection of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) among cattle in northern Bangladesh.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2023 to August 2025 across 10 districts involving 8,650 cattle from 1,200 households.Clinical examination, questionnaire-based epidemiological investigation, spatial mapping, and PCR targeting the P32 and thymidine kinase (TK) genes were performed.Results: The overall prevalence of LSD was 30.15% (2608/8650; 95% CI: 29.2-32.1),while mortality and case fatality rates (CFR) were 3.02% and 10.01%, respectively.Marked spatial and seasonal variations were observed, with the highest prevalence recorded in Thakurgaon (33.92%) and during the rainy season (44.56%).Calves aged below one year showed the highest prevalence (37.39%) and were approximately two times more susceptible to infection (OR = 2.04; 95% CI: 1.82-2.29).Non-vaccinated cattle showed markedly higher prevalence (36.45%) of LSD.Multivariable logistic regression identified non-vaccination (AOR = 14.3; 95% CI: 9.63-21.7),poor biosecurity (AOR = 5.18; 95% CI: 3.37-8.08),and large herd size (AOR = 2.80; 95% CI: 1.87-4.22)as major independent predictors of LSD occurrence. Conclusion:The findings demonstrate that LSD is widely distributed and strongly influenced by management, environmental, and host-related factors in northern Bangladesh.Strengthening vaccination coverage, farm biosecurity, vector control, and targeted surveillance programs may substantially reduce the burden of Lumpy Skin Disease in cattle populations.