Enabling environment for agroforestry scaling in smallholder farming systems of southwestern Ethiopia

Agroforestry is widely recognized for its contributions to sustainable livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation, and ecosystem resilience. However, despite supportive national policies, scaling up agroforestry remains constrained by weaknesses in the enabling environment. This study assessed the governance, market, and policy dimensions influencing agroforestry scaling in four districts of southwestern Ethiopia. A mixed-methods approach combined a household survey of 373 randomly selected households with key informant interviews, focus group discussions, stakeholder analysis, and document review. Descriptive statistics, stakeholder power–interest analysis, and binary logistic regression were used to examine institutional interactions and identify the determinants of agroforestry scaling. The regression model was statistically significant (Omnibus χ 2 = 29.94, p < 0.001) and explained 7.7–19.9% of the variation in agroforestry scaling. Distance to the nearest market (OR = 0.64, p = 0.006) and affordability of seedlings (OR = 7.05, p = 0.001) were the only significant determinants. Households located farther from markets were less likely to scale up agroforestry, whereas affordable seedlings increased the likelihood of scaling by more than sevenfold. Stakeholder analysis revealed fragmented institutional coordination, limited engagement of influential market actors, and weak integration among governance, market, and policy systems. Qualitative findings identified inadequate extension services, weak input and market linkages, and implementation gaps as major barriers. Overall, governance, markets, and policy function as interconnected components of the enabling environment, with market accessibility and affordable planting materials emerging as the strongest drivers of agroforestry scaling. Strengthening institutional coordination, improving market access, and enhancing policy implementation are therefore essential for promoting sustainable agroforestry scaling in Ethiopia and other smallholder farming systems across Sub-Saharan Africa.