Parenting engagement of Millennial and Generation Z parents in infant and toddler care: mediation and moderation effects

Background Evolving family structures and shifting gender role expectations shape parenting engagement among Millennial and Generation Z (MZ) parents. However, the mechanisms through which marital intimacy, household labor division, and parental efficacy influence parenting engagement remain unclear. Objectives This study examines the direct, mediating, and moderating relationships among marital intimacy, household labor division, parental efficacy, and parenting engagement among MZ parents. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 210 MZ parents in South Korea. Data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling to examine the hypothesized mediation and moderation effects. Results Marital intimacy and household labor division were positively associated with parental efficacy, which, in turn, was linked to parenting engagement. Parental efficacy fully mediated the relationship between marital intimacy and parenting engagement and partially mediated the relationship between household labor division and parenting engagement. Furthermore, parental role served as a moderator of the relationship between household labor division and parental efficacy. As household labor division increased, parental efficacy increased among fathers but decreased among mothers. Other moderating effects were not significant. Conclusions Parental efficacy is a key mechanism linking family relational and structural characteristics to parenting engagement among contemporary MZ parents. Although MZ parents demonstrate more egalitarian parenting roles than parents from previous generations, fathers and mothers differ in the association between household labor division and parental efficacy. Therefore, behavioral equality may not necessarily translate into equivalent psychological experiences. These findings highlight the importance of strengthening parental efficacy while considering gender-specific caregiving experiences when developing parenting interventions.