Harnessing green nanotechnology and phytoremediation for sustainable mitigation of heavy metals and nanoparticles from wastewater

Environmental pollutants are responsible for the deterioration of air, water, and soil quality. The non-biodegradability of heavy metal ions makes them a more problematic pollutant. Human and natural activities are the main sources of their presence in water. Conventional remediation techniques for heavy metals are costly and time-consuming. This review explores the integration of phytoremediation with nanotechnology for sustainable environmental clean-up. It highlights the adsorption of heavy metal ions using nanomaterials and the remediation of residual nanoparticles through plant species. It also discusses nanoparticle leaching and its toxicological effects, as well as recent water purification technologies. The novelty of this review lies in combining adsorption and phytoremediation within a single framework. This approach minimizes nanoparticle persistence and promotes a more sustainable water treatment. The long-term effects of nanoparticles on plants, their interaction, and their ecological impacts are less understood under combined exposure. This review also highlights case studies, comparisons with traditional methods, social impacts, scalability challenges, regulatory issues, and proposes future research needs.