3D printing in construction: A comprehensive review of materials, methods, applications, and SAFE performance criteria

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, widely referred to as additive manufacturing (AM), is substantially reshaping the construction industry by enabling the digital fabrication of complex architectural forms while reducing material waste, lowering dependence on skilled labour, and compressing construction schedules. Despite a growing body of literature on construction-scale 3D printing, a systematic synthesis framed around holistic, regulation-relevant performance criteria has been largely absent. This paper addresses that gap by presenting a state-of-the-art review structured around the SAFE framework Structural performance, Acoustics, Fire, and Energy as a unified evaluation lens spanning material systems, printing technologies, and application domains. The review covers extrudable cementitious composites, geopolymer binders, polymeric feedstocks, and bio-based materials; it evaluates Contour Crafting, Concrete Printing, D -Shape, Binder Jetting, and Shotcrete 3D Printing. Residential, infrastructure, emergency housing, and space construction applications are critically assessed. Drawing on a systematic corpus of 129 peer-reviewed publications (1997–2026), the review finds that acoustic performance is by far the least-studied SAFE domain, with fire performance of hollow-section printed elements identified as a narrower, secondary gap. Geopolymer binders emerge as particularly promising for fire-resistant applications: conventionally cast FA/GGBS geopolymer concrete retains 75–85% of ambient compressive strength after 800 °C exposure, though equivalent data for printed specimens remain scarce. Multi-material topology-optimised wall systems can achieve U-values meeting national building regulation thermal requirements (≤0.22 W/m²·K). Regulatory fragmentation the absence of harmonised SAFE-domain testing protocols is identified as the single greatest impediment to scaled commercial deployment. The review concludes with a roadmap integrating smart materials, machine-learning process control, and circular economy principles.