Multi-omics evidence reveals robust airborne–human resistome connectivity driven by high-risk ARGs and mediated by Staphylococcus

Airborne microbiomes are considered an important source of human antimicrobial resistance (AMR) exposure, yet multi-omics evidence linking airborne and human nasal resistomes remains limited. Here, we integrated metagenomic sequencing and whole-genome sequencing of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus isolates to investigate the connectivity between air and human nasal resistomes in dairy farm environments. Metagenomic taxonomic profiling showed that Staphylococcus was prominent in total suspended particles (TSP) and consistently detected across all samples. Among environmental reservoirs, TSP resistomes exhibited the strongest similarity to human nasal resistomes. This connectivity was supported by multiple lines of evidence, including highly similar resistome profiles, extensive homologous antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) pairs, strain-level similarity of resistant Staphylococcus isolates, and conserved mobile ARG genetic contexts. Notably, this connectivity was primarily driven by high-risk ARGs, while Staphylococcus was frequently associated with mobile ARGs and represented the only shared pathogenic genomes carrying both ARGs and virulence factor genes between airborne and nasal samples. Although lower ARG diversity, nasal resistomes exhibited higher ARG burden, risk scores, antibiotic-resistant bacterial genome abundance, and prevalence of resistant Staphylococcus . Occupational exposure further increased total and high-risk ARG burdens among farm workers. Together, these findings indicate that TSP can serve as an important route of occupational AMR exposure, with high-risk ARGs and Staphylococcus contributing to connectivity between airborne and nasal resistomes. Incorporating the host microbiome may therefore provide a more complete assessment of human-associated AMR exposure within a One Health framework.