Lunar regolith simulant-based triboelectric nanogenerators via solid-state additive manufacturing

For future lunar missions, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) is essential to reduce reliance on Earth-based supply chains and enable sustained human presence beyond Earth. Realizing this vision critically depends on the efficient on-site energy harvesting from locally available extraterrestrial materials, such as lunar regolith. Utilizing regolith as a functional material can enable autonomous, self-powered systems for sustained surface operations while reducing logistical complexity. In parallel with this vision, this study develops lunar regolith simulant-based triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) using a solid-state additive manufacturing approach. Engineered regolith/metal composite powders (50–80 wt% regolith) are synthesized and deposited onto polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) substrate using cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) to fabricate high-performance, mechanically robust triboelectric layers. The resulting layers exhibit electrical conductivity up to ∼ 4.9 × 1 0 5 S . m − 1 , with thicknesses ranging from 16 to 40 μ m . Furthermore, radiation testing using a high-power linear accelerator confirmed the radiation resistance of the fabricated triboelectric layers, along with their strong interfacial adhesion strength. Notably, under cyclic contact–separation loading, the lunar-based TENG (with 50 wt% regolith) achieves an open-circuit voltage ( V oc ) of 142 V and a short-circuit current ( I sc ) of 17.6 μ A . Moreover, a power density of 81.3 μ W /cm 2 is obtained, representing a significant improvement ( ∼ 27-fold) over previously reported lunar regolith-based TENGs. The fabricated TENGs also maintain stable energy-harvesting performance over 5000 cycles, demonstrating excellent durability and reliability. This work presents the first proof-of-concept demonstration of CSAM-enabled lunar regolith-based TENGs with promising performance, offering a viable pathway toward durable, in-situ energy-harvesting systems for future lunar missions.