Physiological and phenological response of pulses to sowing windows: A review

Selection of an appropriate sowing window is a low-cost management decision that regulates the thermal, photoperiod and soil-moisture environmental conditions experienced by pulse crops. This review evaluated how sowing time affects phenology, crop establishment, growth, nodulation, stress exposure, yield formation and grain quality in major pulses. A preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) aligned search of Google Scholar, Web of Science (WoS), Scopus and CAB abstracts covered peer-reviewed studies published during 1990–2026. Of the 258 records identified, 197 remained after duplicate removal, 150 full-text articles were assessed and 63 studies met the inclusion criteria. Sowing within a locally suitable window improves crop establishment, thermal-use efficiency, biomass accumulation, pod set and seed filling by aligning critical growth stages with favourable temperature and soil-moisture conditions. In contrast, sowing too early or delaying sowing can alter crop duration and increase exposure to heat stress, drought, waterlogging, pests and diseases. Responses vary among species and genotypes because thermal thresholds, photoperiod sensitivity and stress tolerance differ. Therefore, optimum sowing recommendations cannot be based on a universal calendar date. Integrating thermal-time indices, rainfall probability, soil-moisture conditions, weather forecasts and cultivar duration can support crop-, genotype- and region-specific sowing decisions. Such adaptive scheduling offers a practical approach to reducing avoidable stress exposure, improving yield stability and strengthening the climate resilience of rainfed and irrigated pulse-production systems.