Evidence and insights on dryland nature-based solutions for climate adaptation in semi-arid Windhoek, Namibia

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are widely promoted for climate adaptation, yet remain largely grounded in temperate, water-abundant contexts. This study develops a systematic conceptualisation of dryland nature-based solutions (DNbS) through a qualitative case study of Windhoek, Namibia. Drawing on four locally implemented projects and sixteen stakeholder interviews, it examines how adaptation practices are understood and applied in an arid urban environment. The findings indicate that DNbS principles are already embedded in everyday practices such as xeriscaping, indigenous planting, and water-efficient design, although these remain largely unrecognised within formal planning systems. These practices are strongly informed by indigenous and local knowledge (ILK), highlighting the importance of locally grounded knowledge in shaping climate adaptation. The study identifies dryland-specific co-benefits, most consistently reflected in water-efficient practices that reduce irrigation demand and enhance climate resilience under conditions of chronic water stress. It contributes a context-specific conceptualisation of DNbS that extends dominant NbS frameworks to dryland urban environments and offers insights for more inclusive, locally grounded, climate-responsive approaches that recognise the ecological value of dryland landscapes in arid and semi-arid cities.