From Context to Process: A Narrative Literature Review of Analytical Models in Linguistic Landscape Research

As linguistic landscape (LL) research has developed, analytical perspectives have expanded beyond descriptions of visible linguistic forms and content to encompass context, space, social meaning, language policy, sign production, and audience reception. LLs not only reflect language use and linguistic vitality in particular social spaces but also reveal how language policies are implemented, negotiated, or departed from in practice. This narrative literature review compares representative analytical models in LL research, focusing on their analytical emphases, major dimensions, contributions, and limitations. The review identifies a shift from content-oriented analysis towards multidimensional and process-oriented approaches. The SPEAKING Model situates visible language within communicative contexts by examining participants, purposes, norms, and genres, whereas the Social Indexicality Model explains how linguistic forms index social identities, cultural values, and group affiliations. Policy-and process-oriented models connect visible displays with wider policy and social processes. The Three-Dimensional Analytical Model examines relationships among policy, displayed practice, and audience experience, while MIPS integrates policy, sign production, visible practice, and reception. These approaches help explain how linguistic patterns emerge, are interpreted, and may align with or diverge from policy requirements. Overall, no single model is universally optimal; models should be selected or combined according to research aims, objects of study, and data types.