Protective effect of lycopene against sodium nitroprusside-induced oxidative stress in Artemia salina

Lycopene is a carotenoid with potent antioxidant properties, that is widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, thereby increasing the likelihood of its release into aquatic environments through industrial effluents. Artemia salina is a well-established ecotoxicological model organism due to its high sensitivity to chemical stressors and its ecological relevance as a key component of the aquatic food chain. This study aimed to investigate the ecotoxicity of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide (NO) donor and an inducer of oxidative stress, and lycopene, both individually and in combination, in A. salina , using survival assays and biochemical markers, including protein thiols (PSH), non-protein thiols (NPSH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and free iron (Fe 2 ⁺). Complementary in silico analyses were also conducted, including molecular docking of lycopene with the crystal structure of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (PDB: 8K1L), as well as prediction of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties, and acute toxicity. Lycopene (512 µg/mL) did not induce acute toxicity in A. salina at the tested concentrations, whereas SNP (1 mM) showed moderate toxicity. Co-exposure to lycopene and SNP reduced TBARS and free iron levels, suggesting that lycopene exerts a protective antioxidant effect against SNP-induced oxidative damage. Molecular docking yielded a binding energy of − 10.63 kcal/mol, indicating a strong and stable interaction between lycopene and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. ADME analysis revealed a favorable pharmacological profile for lycopene. Overall, these findings demonstrate the antioxidant and modulatory properties of lycopene in an invertebrate model, highlighting its potential role in mitigating oxidative damage in aquatic organisms.