The Various Applications of Graphene Oxide (GO) Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract Graphene oxide (GO) is a two-dimensional carbon-based nanomaterial derived primarily from the oxidation and exfoliation of graphite. The incorporation of oxygen-containing functional groups such as hydroxyl, epoxy, carbonyl, and carboxyl groups into the graphene lattice gives GO distinctive physicochemical characteristics, including a high specific surface area, hydrophilicity, tunable surface chemistry, mechanical strength, optical activity, and excellent ability to undergo chemical functionalization. These properties have made GO and GO-based nanocomposites attractive for applications across environmental, biomedical, energy, electronic, catalytic, and structural fields. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of the major applications of GO nanoparticles, with particular emphasis on developments reported during 2022–2025. The applications discussed include water and wastewater treatment, adsorption of heavy metals and organic contaminants, membrane separation, photocatalysis, energy storage, supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, electrochemical and biosensors, electronics, photonics, and optoelectronics. Future research should focus on green synthesis, standardized characterization, surface engineering, life-cycle assessment, toxicity evaluation, and scalable fabrication of GO-based devices and composites. Overall, GO represents a versatile platform material with substantial potential for next-generation environmental, energy, biomedical, and multifunctional technologies.