StrawberryGRO-E: A techno-economic analytic modeling framework for strawberry production in plant factories

Plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs) offer a transformative approach to food security, yet their economic viability is constrained by high production expenditures and persistent yield heterogeneity. Despite uniform macro-environmental controls, endogenous genetic rhythms and micro-environmental fluctuations induce asynchronous inflorescence overlap which acts as a critical biological driver of output variation. This study aimed to quantify dynamic reproductive load and determine how inflorescence management affected physiological performance, resource efficiency, and economic outcomes in PFAL strawberry production. The Simultaneous Active Inflorescences (SAI) index was developed as a quantitative metric of dynamic reproductive load, and physiological assessments were conducted to characterize its effects on source-sink competition. These relationships were then incorporated into the StrawberryGRO-E techno-economic analytic modeling framework to evaluate three management strategies defined by maximum SAI thresholds: Conservative ( SA I max = 1), Moderate ( SA I max = 2), and Intensive ( SA I max = 3). Results demonstrated that despite individual physiological penalties associated with higher reproductive loads, the Intensive strategy recorded the lowest specific energy consumption of 83.7 kWh/kg, enhancing system-level energy efficiency by diluting fixed costs. However, economic performance was highly market-dependent. Moderate management strategy maximized net profit (1115.55 CNY/m 2 /year) in quality-sensitive premium markets, whereas Intensive management strategy was most effective in volume-driven mass markets. Sensitivity analyses further identified profitability crossover points under fluctuating electricity prices and market volatility, with the Moderate strategy showing stronger resilience in quality-sensitive markets. This research confirms that inflorescence management, tailored to market positioning and resource expenditures, is essential for sustained annual profitability in PFALs.