Multilingual experience and cognitive control shape lexical competition in non-native word production: An fMRI study

Abstract During production, multilinguals face increased lexical competition within and across languages, demanding cognitive control. This study investigated how multilingual experience—indexed by proficiency and usage—modulates the influence of trait-level (via control tasks) and state-level (using a Stroop-embedded picture naming task) cognitive control on non-native language production. Greater lexical competition was associated with poorer naming performance. Stroop trials showed facilitation for individuals with stronger control abilities but interference for those with weaker abilities, particularly among lower-proficiency participants. Higher English proficiency and more balanced language use were linked to better naming performance. Although proficient multilinguals exhibited larger lexical competition effects, those with more balanced language use demonstrated better adaptation to conflict resolution. Neuroimaging revealed increased activation in language-specific and domain-general regions under high competition, with higher-proficiency individuals dynamically recruiting additional neural resources. Together, these findings show that multilingual experience and cognitive control shape behavioral and neural mechanisms during non-native language production.