A virtual reality framework for studying affective modulation of route-based spatial navigation

Abstract Immersive virtual reality (VR) enables the investigation of spatial navigation under controlled yet ecologically valid conditions. This study developed and validated an immersive VR paradigm that experimentally manipulates anticipatory threat during route-based navigation while systematically optimizing locomotion parameters to prevent cybersickness and ensure data quality in head-mounted display systems. Forty-eight participants navigated a virtual urban grid environment using a Meta Quest 3 headset and completed route repetition and route retracing tasks under threat-of-shock and safety conditions. To balance ecological realism with participant wellbeing, three passive locomotion modes were iteratively optimized and compared: continuous forward movement (along curved or straight paths) and discrete stepwise beaming. Navigation performance was assessed via accuracy and decision times at intersections, and trait anxiety was examined as an interindividual moderator. Continuous locomotion reduced subjective wellbeing compared to stepwise locomotion, underscoring the substantial impact of locomotion mode on user experience. Behaviorally, route retracing yielded lower accuracy and longer decision times than route repetition, confirming increased task demands. Threat-of-shock selectively modulated decision dynamics, increasing decision times without altering accuracy rates. These effects were moderated by locomotion mode and trait anxiety. Under continuous locomotion, low-anxious participants showed threat-related slowing, whereas under stepwise locomotion, threat was associated with faster decisions. High-anxious individuals exhibited no significant threat-related modulation. In summary, locomotion implementation critically influenced both user experience and experimental outcomes. The paradigm provides a reproducible framework for examining the influence of anticipatory threat on spatial navigation while highlighting the importance of optimizing locomotion parameters to balance immersion, wellbeing, and experimental validity.