A systematic quantitative literature review on low-cost GNSS modules: performance, price, and impact of environmental conditions across different testing scenarios

Abstract This systematic quantitative literature review analyzes the performance, cost, and environmental sensitivity of low-cost GNSS modules from 2015 to July 2025. Using a PRISMA-guided search of Scopus and Google Scholar, 37 studies were identified, focusing on quantitative metrics such as RMSE and SD. The findings reveal that multi-frequency (MF) modules consistently provide centimetre-level accuracy in both open-sky and urban/kinematic conditions, while dual-frequency (DF) modules show improvement over single-frequency (SF) modules but remain sensitive to urban multipath. SF modules exhibit high accuracy variability depending on environmental conditions. A trade-off exists between cost and accuracy, with DF and MF modules offering higher precision but at a higher cost, suitable for applications like deformation monitoring. The meta-analysis indicates that MF modules outperform DF and SF modules in stability and accuracy across various environments. This review maps module distribution, identifies methodological gaps, and offers practical guidance for selecting GNSS modules based on application and environmental factors, providing valuable insights for cost-effective geospatial monitoring and surveying.