Why Transit-Oriented Development Underperforms Its Policy in India: A Structured Review of Delhi, Ahmedabad and Bengaluru Against the Financing Question

India's national and municipal policy has endorsed Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) for two decades — the National Urban Transport Policy named it explicitly in 2006 and made it a stated planning objective in 2014, and the Delhi Development Authority dedicated a full chapter of the Master Plan for Delhi 2021 to it in 2007. Metro and Bus Rapid Transit systems have since been built or expanded in more than a dozen Indian cities. Yet TOD in India is widely characterised, including by its own advocates, as struggling to translate transit investment into the density, mixed use and ridership that TOD is meant to produce...