A comprehensive review on advancements in three-dimensional electrochemical disinfection as cutting-edge approaches for bacterial inactivation in water treatment: mechanisms and influencing factors

This review evaluated the three-dimensional electrochemical process (3DEP) as an innovative and efficient process for water and wastewater disinfection. Microbial contamination in water resources is a significant public health challenge, necessitating effective and sustainable disinfection methods. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are known for their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), making them an effective solution for pathogen removal. In this context, 3DEP outperforms two-dimensional electrochemical systems by enhancing the contact area, improving mass transfer, and generating strong oxidizing species. This paper investigated various mechanisms of microbial inactivation in 3DEP, including direct, semi-direct, and indirect oxidation, the effects of the electric field, and in-situ generation of disinfection by-products. Additionally, the impact of key parameters such as current density, pH, electrode type and spacing, aeration, and energy consumption on process efficiency was explored. Previous literature showed that 3DEP is highly efficient in removing antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the presence of various nanoparticle electrodes, such as activated carbon and metal nanoparticles. Despite the advantages of the 3DEP process, including low production of harmful byproducts, high energy efficiency and adaptability to various conditions make this technology as high potential system for sustainable and safe disinfection of water and wastewater, high capital costs, chlorate/perchlorate production and scaling limitations still persist. Future advances in modular and solar 3DEP systems for decentralized treatment in remote areas depend on real-time monitoring and fouling-resistant designs.