Direct and Indirect Interactive Effects of Climate, Topography, and Human Activities on Vegetation Dynamics in a Semi-Humid Mountainous System

Vegetation change is regarded as a key indicator of environmental change and ecosystem functional evolution. In mountainous regions, vegetation dynamics arise from complex and non-linear interactions among climate, topography, land use, and human activities, yet the mechanisms governing these interactions remain poorly understood. Clarifying long-term vegetation trajectories and their interacting controls is essential for understanding ecosystem structure and function. In this study, we integrated machine learning and causal modeling by combining random forest (RF) and structural equation modeling (SEM) to quantify both the relative importance and the direct and indirect pathways of natural and anthropogenic drivers of vegetation change in the Longnan region from 2000 to 2020. The RF results showed that the selected driving factors explained 82.62% and 72.39% of the spatial variation in vegetation cover in 2000 and 2020, respectively, with climatic and anthropogenic factors ranking as the most important drivers. Although ecological restoration activities contributed to an overall improvement in vegetation conditions, land-use heterogeneity and ecological constraints imposed by high elevation jointly produced contrasting local responses, resulting in vegetation degradation in surrounding areas. SEM revealed that the net influence of anthropogenic activities shifted from positive to negative over time, mainly due to land-use change, indicating a reorganization of human–vegetation interactions. Climate effects remained positive, with precipitation having a stronger influence than temperature. Topography moderated vegetation responses, as slopes below 40° favored vegetation growth. Soil effects shifted from positive to negative, likely associated with changes in soil organic matter. By jointly applying RF and SEM, this study captures both non-linear responses and causal pathways, providing a system-level perspective on the complex mechanisms underlying vegetation change.