Advances in gold and silver nanoplatforms for photon therapies in breast cancer

Abstract Breast cancer (BC) remains a major global health challenge due to tumor heterogeneity, therapeutic resistance, recurrence, and treatment-associated toxicity. Photon-based therapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and radiotherapy (RT), offer spatially controlled approaches for cancer treatment. However, their efficacy can be limited by insufficient selectivity, restricted light penetration, hypoxia, and radioresistance. Metallic nanoparticles (NPs), particularly gold (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), have emerged as versatile platforms capable of enhancing photon interactions across the electromagnetic spectrum. This review discusses recent advances in AuNP- and AgNP-assisted photon therapies for BC, emphasizing how NP size, shape, surface functionalization, optical properties, and biological interactions can influence outcomes. In PTT, plasmonic nanostructures enable efficient light-to-heat conversion, whereas in PDT, metallic NPs can improve photosensitizer delivery, modulate reactive oxygen species generation, and may enhance responses through plasmonic effects. In RT, high-atomic-number nanomaterials increase local energy deposition and contribute to radiosensitization through physical and biological mechanisms. Emerging bimodal approaches integrating PDT, PTT, and RT into a single nanoplatform are also discussed as strategies to amplify antitumor responses. Future perspectives highlight next-generation Au and Ag nanoplatforms, including matrix-based delivery systems, hybrid and asymmetric architectures, nanozyme-integrated approaches, and theranostic strategies designed to improve tumor selectivity and clinical translation. Despite encouraging preclinical results, clinical translation remains challenged by variability in NP design and incomplete standardization of irradiation parameters. Overall, Au and Ag nanoplatforms represent promising tools for advancing precision photon-based therapies, although further optimization and rigorous translational studies are required to establish their clinical potential in BC management.