Uneven benefits of long-term study abroad: English use, job pathways, and earnings in Japan

Outbound student mobility is widely promoted as a core component of higher education internationalization, yet evidence remains mixed regarding how extended study abroad translates into durable graduate outcomes. This study examines whether long-term university study abroad is associated with employability outcomes at labor market entry and later in the career in Japan, a context where outbound mobility remains limited and institutionally constrained. Drawing on a nationwide survey of bachelor’s degree holders, the analysis focuses on individuals who studied abroad for more than one year during university and compares them to non-mobile peers. Earnings are measured at two stages: annual income in the first post-graduation job, deflated to 2017 yen, and current annual income measured in 2017, both inclusive of bonuses. To address differences in background characteristics between mobile and non-mobile graduates, the study applies propensity score matching and models first-job and current-job outcomes within a two-period framework. Results indicate that long-term study abroad is positively associated with earnings at both career stages under baseline adjustment. However, the association diminishes substantially after accounting for university academic level and becomes statistically indistinguishable from zero once English proficiency and job pathway characteristics are considered. Further analyses reveal systematic sorting of study abroad participants into internationally oriented departments and workplaces, suggesting that the employability value of mobility is concentrated in career tracks where English and related international competencies are actively used. These findings suggest that the benefits of long-term mobility are conditional rather than universal and depend on the alignment between educational experiences and subsequent labor market contexts. The study contributes to research on internationalization and graduate outcomes by clarifying the pathways through which mobility may shape early and mid-career trajectories, with implications for the design and targeting of outbound study abroad initiatives.