Phylogenomics reveals persistent gene-tree discordance in the Chenopodium album aggregate

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Complex genomic histories shaped by hybridisation and polyploidy can influence traits related to plant defence, stress tolerance and toxicity, particularly in Amaranthaceae, which includes crops such as quinoa and spinach. Within this family, white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), a widespread agricultural weed and traditional food resource, belongs to a diploid-polyploid aggregate with extensive phylogenetic discordance. Clarifying its evolutionary history provides context for interpreting ecologically and agronomically relevant trait variation across the aggregate. Building on the established genome-lineage framework, we tested whether discordance persists when constituent genome-lineage components are represented separately and whether the remaining signal is compatible with reticulate evolution. METHODS: We analysed 2,298 conserved nuclear BUSCO families across 27 assembly-level terminals using tree- and network-based approaches. Genome-lineage-aware analyses used 2,156 families after separating polyploid Chenopodium into A-H components, with Dysphania ambrosioides as outgroup. HyDe tested site-pattern asymmetry under global false-discovery-rate correction. KEY RESULTS: Assembly-level analyses grouped the Danish C. album aggregate accession Ca6-1 with hexaploid C. album sensu stricto dcCheAlbu1.1, whereas relationships among surrounding Chenopodium taxa were less stable. Genome-lineage-aware analyses recovered the expected B-, C- and D-affinity relationships, but substantial gene-family heterogeneity persisted. Reticulate network models fitted the assembly-level data better than bifurcating models, although inferred patterns differed between methods. HyDe detected significant site-pattern asymmetry in a small subset of loci, with most retained signal shared between the focal assemblies. CONCLUSIONS: Gene-tree discordance persists in the C. album aggregate after genome-lineage separation. The established genome-lineage framework captures the dominant phylogenomic structure, while residual heterogeneity is compatible with both tree-like and reticulate processes without identifying direct progenitors or a unique hybridisation history. This framework supports future analyses of lineage-specific and trait-associated loci related to plant defence, food quality and toxicity in C. album and related Amaranthaceae.