Virtual vs. human influencers in sustainable festival tourism: the interactive effects of message appeal and source attractiveness

Purpose Drawing on the source attractiveness model and parasocial theory, this study investigated how influencer type (human vs. virtual) and message appeal (rational vs. emotional) influence festivalgoers' sustainable behaviors. Design/methodology/approach This study employed a two-stage experimental design with festivalgoers as participants. Stage 1 examined the direct effects of influencer type on sustainable behavioral intentions, as well as indirect effects through serial mediation by source attractiveness and social media engagement. Stage 2 incorporated message appeal, examining its interaction with influencer type and serial mediation through source attractiveness and parasocial relationships. Findings Virtual influencers drive strong pro-environmental intentions through a significant direct effect, despite a significant source attractiveness deficit compared to humans. While parasocial relationships and engagement typically mediate these outcomes, emotional appeals create a suppression effect, exacerbating the virtual influencer's deficit in perceived source attractiveness while simultaneously strengthening behavioral intentions. Practical implications The findings offer practical guidance for festival organizers and destination marketers on how to strategically align influencer type and message appeal with sustainability objectives. They can pair emotional appeals with virtual influencers to enhance pro-environmental behavioral impact, whereas human influencers or community representatives may be better suited to prosocial and relationship-oriented goals. Originality/value This study extends research on virtual influencers and sustainable tourism by showing how influencer type and message appeal jointly shape festivalgoers' pro-environmental intentions. It contributes theoretically by positioning source attractiveness as a relational mechanism distinct from source credibility and by identifying a boundary condition under which virtual influencers can motivate pro-environmental action despite lower perceived attractiveness and weakened parasocial pathways.