Between Energy Security and Environmental Protection: The Dilemmas Faced by Households in the Context of an Emerging Energy Crisis

This study examines growing tensions between household energy security and climate and energy policy objectives in Poland. It aims to analyze household attitudes towards the decarbonization of heating, particularly the phase-out of solid fuels and gas, and to assess perceptions of alternative heat sources as a means of ensuring energy security. The analysis draws on a survey of representatives of 508 households in five municipalities in the Małopolska Voivodeship, characterized by diverse heating structures. The quantitative study was complemented by 18 in-depth interviews with local government representatives. The results indicate low public acceptance of heating decarbonization amid growing energy uncertainty. Respondents recognized the importance of diversifying heat sources and supported retaining a solid-fuel boiler, regardless of its class, as an emergency backup. Energy security was associated more strongly with autonomy, independence, and freedom of choice than with low-carbon technologies. Solid-fuel heating was perceived as strengthening household resilience to supply disruptions and crises. The findings highlight the need to consider household energy security, particularly energy costs and resilience, when designing energy policies and regulatory instruments such as ETS2 (EU Emissions Trading System 2), especially in municipalities with socio-economic and energy conditions similar to those of the municipalities included in the study.