Nutritional composition, livestock responses and utilisation of alternative fodder plants in smallholder livestock systems

Seasonal feed shortages remain one of the major constraints limiting livestock productivity in smallholder farming systems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where climate variability and recurrent droughts reduce forage availability and quality. Alternative fodder plants, including fodder trees, browse species, shrubs, and drought-tolerant plants, have attracted increasing attention because of their potential to improve livestock nutrition while enhancing the resilience of smallholder production systems. This systematic review synthesised published evidence on the nutritional composition, utilisation patterns, and livestock production responses associated with alternative fodder plants in smallholder ruminant systems. Literature published between 2000 and 2025 was retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. After screening and quality assessment, 178 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Evidence synthesis demonstrated considerable variation in nutritional composition among fodder species, largely influenced by plant species, maturity stage, plant parts, environmental conditions, season, and analytical methods. Protein-rich leguminous species such as Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa oleifera , and Gliricidia sepium consistently contained higher crude protein concentrations than most non-leguminous browse species, whereas drought-tolerant species such as Opuntia ficus-indica provided valuable energy and moisture during periods of forage scarcity. Across the reviewed studies, supplementation with alternative fodder plants generally improved feed intake, nutrient digestibility, average daily gain, milk production, and body condition in cattle, sheep, and goats. However, anti-nutritional compounds, seasonal variability, limited agronomic management, and inadequate extension support continue to constrain wider adoption by smallholder farmers. The review further highlights important knowledge gaps relating to long-term animal performance, economic feasibility, environmental impacts, and farmer adoption. Overall, integrating nutritionally superior and drought-resilient fodder plants into smallholder livestock systems represents a promising climate-smart strategy for improving feed security, livestock productivity, and resilience to climate change.