Composition gradients in sub-Neptunes: K2-18 b and TOI-270 d as case studies

Structure models of sub-Neptunes commonly assume purely adiabatic interiors with distinct layers of homogeneous composition. We assess how allowing for more complex interiors with composition gradients affects the inferred internal structure and bulk compositions of the sub-Neptunes K2-18,b and TOI-270,d. We compare purely adiabatic models with distinct layers against models that include composition gradients and stable non-convective regions. We present solutions that are consistent with the observed masses, radii, and atmospheric boundary conditions. Generally, interior degeneracy remains substantial even at a fixed mass and radius. We further find that composition gradients significantly increase the range of viable interior structures. For example, the maximum hydrogen--helium (H--He) mass fraction can increase significantly, by a factor of about three at a 1,bar temperature of 300,K and by a factor of about 10 at 600,K for K2-18,b. For TOI-270,d, the increase is generally more than an order of magnitude. Composition gradients additionally weaken parameter correlations. For K2-18,b and TOI-270,d, the Spearman rank correlation between the H--He and iron abundances drops from sim0.7 to sim0.3, with a similar weakening between the H--He abundance and the rock-to-iron mass ratio. However, other correlations, such as that between the H--He abundance and the water-to-rock mass ratio, persist or even strengthen and remain non-negligible. Purely adiabatic models underestimate the range of plausible compositions and overestimate the impact of more precise measurements, atmosphere models, and host-star constraints on a more accurate characterisation. We suggest that interior models of sub-Neptunes should by default include more complex interiors, such as composition gradients and non-convective regions, when using data for interpreting the planetary structure, formation, and evolution.