Lessons from integrated climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions for synergies and co-benefits in African cities

The diverse impacts of climate change on urban areas and the strategies to adapt have been widely studied over the past 25 years. While there is consensus on the importance of adaptation and mitigation, significant uncertainties stem from data paucity for certain regions, especially in Africa. This study examines how African cities integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation, focusing on synergies and co-benefits. We systematically reviewed 173 publications and reports covering 12 diverse cities, coding 1889 actions across actors, spatial scales, implementation levels, synergies, and trade-offs. We contextualised actions using a composite index combining climate exposure, social vulnerability, and infrastructure deficit. Publications surged between 2022 and 2025, but secondary and smaller cities remain under-represented. Implementation patterns vary widely across cities and scales. We identified a Synergy Gap indicating where actions with co-benefits may lag behind singular interventions, reflecting siloed governance that hinders integrated frameworks. Limitations include categorisation overlaps and difficulty ground-truthing implementation effectiveness in data-scarce contexts. We conclude that integrated, multi-scalar approaches anchored in better data and dynamic frameworks are essential to align urban climate action with Africa’s heterogeneous urban realities.