From Chlorpyrifos Degradation to Detoxification: Bacterial Diversity, Metabolic Pathways, Microbial Consortia, and Prospects for Field-Scale Bioremediation

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is the most commonly used organophosphorus insecticide in agriculture globally. This has raised concerns due to its persistence, bioaccumulation, neurotoxicity, and environmental and human health effects. Until 2020, CPF was the most commonly used pesticide in European Union (EU) food production. CPF is also used in other parts of the world, though it has been discontinued in the EU, as national pesticide surveillance programs indicate it is found in soil, water, and food. This type of persistence is potentially harmful to farmers, consumers, and animals because CPF is toxic. Markedly, CPF has the potential to change the microbiota composition of soils, i.e., fungal, bacterial, and actinomycete communities, and inhibit the mineralization of nitrogen. The key CPF activity is associated with the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), leading to reproductive, neurotoxic, and genotoxic effects. Microbial degradation, especially when applied by means of bacteria, has become one of the promising alternatives to the traditional physicochemical means since it is inexpensive, does not harm the environment and may possibly be fully detoxified. This review summarizes the latest developments in the study of CPF-degrading bacteria, enzyme pathways, microbial diversity, and the evaluation of the environmental impact of microbial remediation. Recent research findings, genomic research developments, and potential applications of CPF-degrading bacteria are addressed. In addition, this study reveals the current knowledge gaps, presents biotechnological challenges, and suggests future directions in the application of field-scale studies, focusing on the application of microbial solutions in sustainable agriculture.