Developing a multidimensional indicator framework for climate change adaptation in human settlements and human security: Evidence from Thailand

Assessing progress in climate change adaptation remains challenging, particularly in human settlements and human security where adaptation outcomes involve interactions among infrastructure systems, governance mechanisms, and social vulnerability. Existing adaptation monitoring approaches often emphasize institutional outputs and infrastructure measures while providing limited insight into how these interventions translate into resilience at the household and community levels. This study develops a multidimensional indicator framework for assessing climate change adaptation in the context of human settlements and human security in Thailand. The framework was developed through a review of adaptation literature and global adaptation frameworks, analysis of Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan, and consultations with relevant government agencies and experts. The findings identify five interrelated dimensions of adaptation: urban planning, infrastructure quantity and quality, disaster preparedness and risk reduction mechanisms, social protection and resilience mechanisms, and quality of life and household resilience. The proposed indicators represent different stages of the adaptation results chain, encompassing process, output, and outcome measures across these dimensions. The framework integrates institutional adaptation mechanisms with household-level dimensions of adaptive capacity, including housing security, economic resilience, and social protection coverage. The study demonstrates how multidimensional and context-sensitive adaptation indicators can be operationalized within existing governance and administrative systems, providing a practical link between global adaptation priorities and national implementation in developing-country contexts. The proposed framework provides an operational basis for monitoring adaptation progress and supporting national adaptation governance in Thailand while offering a context-sensitive approach that may inform adaptation monitoring in other developing-country settings.