Socioeconomic inequality shapes urban bird richness: Evidence for the luxury effect in Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract The “luxury effect” (the tendency for wealthier urban areas to host higher biodiversity) is well-documented in cities of the Global North but remains understudied in the Global South, where socioeconomic inequality is often more pronounced. This study examines the luxury effect in Bogotá, Colombia, a biodiverse yet highly stratified city, using citizen science data from eBird and socioeconomic indicators such as land value and neighborhood stratification. We employed spatial regression models (SAR and SEM) to assess the relationship between bird species distribution and socioeconomic status while accounting for spatial autocorrelation. Over half of the analysed species (> 50%) showed a positive association with higher land values, and their occurrences were spatially clustered, confirming the luxury effect in Bogotá. However, species-specific responses varied: aquatic and migratory birds were less influenced by socioeconomic factors, while generalist species exhibited no clear pattern. Additionally, we found a positive correlation between urban tree species richness—including both native and ornamental non‑native trees, which are particularly prevalent in affluent neighborhoods—and bird species richness ( r = 0.47, p < 0.001), though tree richness explained only 23% of the variation, suggesting other ecological factors also play a role. These findings highlight how socioeconomic inequality shapes urban biodiversity, with wealthier neighborhoods benefiting from greater access to green spaces and higher bird richness. The study highlights that equitable urban planning, specifically the fair distribution of green spaces, is critical to reducing biodiversity inequities and promoting conservation in rapidly urbanizing megacities of the Global South. Graphical abstract Illustrated by Sara G Acosta M