From Pixel Modification to Generative Synthesis: A Survey of Deep Learning for Image Data Hiding

This survey presents a structured review of deep learning-based techniques for image data hiding, proposing a three-paradigm taxonomy organized by the method’s operational relationship to the carrier image. We classify existing methods into modification-based, synthesis-based, and logic-based approaches. In the modification-based tier, we trace the architectural progression from foundational Convolutional Neural Networks and Generative Adversarial Networks to high-capacity Invertible Neural Networks and Transformers, analyzing their distinct trade-offs between embedding capacity, imperceptibility, and robustness. In the synthesis-based tier, we examine how Diffusion Probabilistic Models and generative adversarial frameworks reframe data hiding as a carrier generation problem rather than a pixel editing task. This paradigm encompasses both generative steganography (where carriers are synthesized from scratch) and proactive watermarking (where provenance is embedded during AI content generation). In the logic-based tier, we review zero-watermarking and coverless steganography, where ownership is established through feature extraction and semantic mapping without modifying any image, a critical property for sensitive domains such as medical imaging. Finally, we identify four persistent infrastructure gaps: benchmarking fragmentation, narrow robustness evaluation, domain generalization failures, and computational infeasibility that prevent real-world deployment despite architectural progress, and we propose concrete research directions.