Assessing soft skills in European higher education: A scoping review of instruments, practices and assessment paradigms

Assessing soft skills in European higher education remains a key challenge, particularly after the implementation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). This scoping review maps scientific evidence (2020 to mid-2025) on assessment practices for the ‘Seal 1 + 5’ Model competencies in European universities, identifying techniques and paradigmatic approaches. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, 45 studies from ERIC, Scopus, Web of Science, and Dialnet were analysed using quantitative and qualitative descriptive methods. Results reveal a predominance of positivist, self-report approaches, mainly based on questionnaires, with soft skills assessment serving primarily summative or diagnostic purposes. Participatory and authentic assessment methods are scarce. Teamwork and emotional intelligence are the most frequently assessed competencies. Technological and artificial intelligence applications are emerging but underdeveloped. Findings highlight the need to move toward comprehensive, participatory, and authentic assessment models that go beyond technical measurement, enhancing the pedagogical function of assessment and supporting holistic soft skill development in higher education.