Spatiotemporal assessment of watershed health and vulnerability using integrated VOR–RRV frameworks for enhancing ecosystem sustainability

This study assesses the watershed health (WH) and vulnerability of the Taleghan watershed using an integrated vigor–organization–resilience (VOR) and reliability–resilience–vulnerability (RRV) framework. The integrated VOR–RRV framework simultaneously assesses ecological health and hydrological vulnerability, enabling sub-watershed prioritization based on a health–vulnerability matrix for sustainable watershed management. Watershed vigor was evaluated based on runoff and soil erosion, while organization and resilience were quantified using landscape metrics for 1995 and 2025. Vulnerability during 1995–2025 was assessed through the RRV model incorporating the standardized precipitation index (SPI). Results showed moderate WH, with a declining trend from 0.49 in 1995 to 0.46 in 2025. Vigor, organization, and resilience indices decreased across most sub-basins. Vulnerability analysis indicated moderate conditions, with mean reliability, resilience, vulnerability, and RRV values of 0.46, 0.50, 0.55, and 0.56, respectively. Integrated VOR–RRV results prioritized sub-basins for immediate restoration (33%), immediate conservation (27%), conservation (23%), and rehabilitation (17%). Statistical analysis confirmed significance at the 5% level, although no significant relationship was found between the VOR and RRV models.