Comparative Phytochemical Characterization of Turkish Propolis Extracts and Their Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Anticancer Activities

Geographical and botanical origin dominate the chemical composition and biological activity of propolis samples. In this study, thirty Turkish propolis samples collected from different regions within the Black Sea region were comprehensively evaluated to investigate the relationships between phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, antibacterial activity, and anticancer potential. The propolis samples were extracted using 70% aqueous ethanol and labeled as K1-K30. Total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and DPPH radical scavenging activity were determined. Antibacterial activity was evaluated against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains using inhibition zone (ZI), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests. Most of the extracts showed measurable antibacterial activity, where Gram-positive bacteria generally showed higher susceptibility compared to the tested Gram-negative bacterial species. The extracts K12, K13, K22, K24, and K28 demonstrated the strongest broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that antibacterial efficacy was more strongly associated with antioxidant capacity and flavonoid richness than with total phenolic content alone. FRAP and TFC emerged as the strongest predictors of antibacterial activity, while specific phenolic compounds (particularly quercetin and trans ferulic acid) were associated with enhanced activity against Gram-negative bacteria. Preliminary anticancer activity was assessed using cell viability assays at 24, 48, and 72 h. Cytotoxic responses were highly heterogeneous and strongly time-dependent. K10, among the extracts, exhibited the strongest anticancer activity, showing inhibition rates above 80% at 24 and 48 h, whereas K4 and K23 also demonstrated considerable cytotoxic effects. Notably, antibacterial and anticancer activities were not directly correlated. Extracts with strong antibacterial activity, such as K12 and K22, showed proliferative effects in anticancer assays, whereas K10 displayed weak antibacterial but strong anticancer activity. These findings demonstrate that antibacterial and anticancer properties of propolis are governed by distinct phytochemical compositions. Overall, this study highlights the multidimensional bioactivity of Turkish propolis and emphasizes the importance of comprehensive phytochemical characterization for identifying extracts with application-specific therapeutic potential.