From Hazard Occurrence to Risk Assessment: Antimicrobial Resistance and Chemical Co-selection in Ready-to-Eat Vegetables: A Scoping Review

: Background Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasingly recognised as a One Health concern. However, approaches to assessing such risks in horticultural systems are still developing and are often adapted from frameworks originally designed for human foodborne pathogens or chemical safety. Scope and approach This scoping review systematically mapped and evaluated risk assessment methodologies relevant to AMR and chemically mediated co-selection across ready-to-eat (RTE) vegetable production chains. Peer-reviewed and grey literature published between 2000 and 2025 was searched across major databases and institutional sources; 456 records were identified, 216 unique records were screened, and the included studies were synthesised across four domains: a) AMR and pathogen prevalence in fresh produce systems; b) Mechanisms of AMR and chemical co-selection; c) Regulatory and voluntary frameworks; d) Risk-assessment methodologies and applications. Key findings and conclusions Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistance genes were reported in vegetables, irrigation water, manure, soil, and post-harvest environments, with higher prevalence commonly reported in systems using untreated wastewater or raw manure. Horizontal gene transfer, mobile genetic elements, and co-selection by fungicides, herbicides, metal(loid)s, and disinfectants were recurrent mechanisms associated with AMR persistence and dissemination. Existing regulations remain focused on conventional microbial indicators and rarely incorporate AMR determinants and the potential for AMR to evolve on crops. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was the most common modelling approach, but it was applied primarily to human foodborne pathogens; AMR-specific dose-response data and crop-pathogen endpoints were largely absent. Integrated, horticulture-specific risk-assessment approaches are needed to integrate resistance mechanisms and exposure pathways with agricultural, environmental, and public-health outcomes.