Tiger and leopard habitat use in Bhutan revealed by Bayesian multi-scale spatial occupancy models

The increasing ecological costs and constraints facing large carnivores, driven by habitat loss, poaching and human–wildlife conflict, represent a major challenge for global conservation. Although tigers have received significant conservation attention, knowledge gaps remain regarding their fundamental biology, including how they differ from sympatric carnivores such as leopards in habitat use and ecological requirements. We studied these two species across Bhutan's mosaic of protected and non-protected areas, using camera trap data from the second National Tiger Survey (2021–2022). We applied a scale-optimised spatial hierarchical occupancy model to examine habitat use by tigers and leopards, compare their ecological niches, and assess their co-occurrence patterns. Tigers were estimated to occupy 7359 km 2 (∼19% of Bhutan), whereas leopards occupied 15,842 km 2 (∼41%), reflecting their broader distribution and Bhutan's disproportionate contribution to the global ranges of both species. For tigers, maintaining the ecological integrity of existing protected areas is more critical than expanding their coverage. Conservation strategies should prioritise core habitats and connectivity beyond protected areas and across multi-use landscapes, while addressing developmental pressures. In contrast, higher leopard occupancy in non-protected, human-modified landscapes, highlights their adaptability but also signals greater risks of human–carnivore conflict. We recommend community-driven coexistence frameworks tailored to species-specific ecological and socio-economic contexts. Building on its strong conservation ethos, Bhutan is well-positioned to lead multidisciplinary strategies that secure the long-term persistence of both species while contributing to biodiversity gains regionally and globally.