Advances in Understanding Salt Stress Effects on Growth and Productivity in Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)

Salinity is a growing problem for cereal cultivation because it imposes multiple stresses, including osmotic, ionic, nutritional, and oxidative constraints, on the crop. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is considered a climate-smart C4 cereal for food, feed, fodder, forage, and bioenergy, but recent studies indicate that salinity continues to hinder establishment, biomass formation, reproductive growth, and yield. This review compiles the literature on the impacts of salinity on sorghum from 2021 to 2026, with a focus on germination, vegetative growth, physiological and biochemical responses, ion homeostasis, genetic control, productivity, mitigation, and future breeding priorities. In total, 160 records were identified, 118 records were screened after duplicate removal, and 44 recent sources were included in the synthesis. Across comparable sorghum studies, saline/NaCl treatments of approximately 60–200 mM commonly reduced germination by about 20–40%, root and shoot elongation by 25–50%, and biomass by 20–55%, while tolerant genotypes generally maintained higher K+/Na+ balance, 40–60% greater biomass retention, or two- to five-fold stronger ion homeostasis indicators than sensitive lines under similar conditions. Salt stress also lowers leaf expansion, chlorophyll stability, gas exchange, dry matter accumulation, panicle fertility, and grain filling. Tolerant genotypes show greater antioxidant potential, osmotic adjustment, photosynthetic stability, and root system resilience. Recent omics and genome-wide association studies suggest that salinity tolerance in sorghum is polygenic and involves genes related to ion transport, stress signalling, antioxidant regulation, osmolyte metabolism, and growth maintenance. This review recommends a shift from descriptive trait lists to full-cycle field validation, multi-trait selection indices, and integrated packages combining breeding with seed priming, soil water management, amendments, and beneficial microorganisms.