Do inclusion-focused advertisements shift perceptions of athletes with physical disabilities? Evidence from a three-wave panel study

Drawing on intergroup contact theory, the stereotype content model, and the elaboration likelihood model, this study examines whether exposure to a single inclusion-focused advertisement featuring athletes with disabilities is associated with within-person shifts in perceived stereotypes (competence and warmth) and personal attitudes toward athletes with physical disabilities over time, and whether reflective engagement is associated with stronger immediate and follow-up responses. Data were collected in Germany in 2025 through a three-wave online panel survey. A total of 395 adults completed measures of competence, warmth, and attitudes toward athletes with disabilities before exposure, immediately after exposure, and at a follow-up approximately three weeks later. Latent change score models showed significant increases in perceived competence and attitudes from baseline to post-exposure, but both declined at follow-up. Warmth showed no immediate change but declined slightly over time. A longitudinal structural equation model indicated that reflective engagement was positively associated with competence, warmth, and attitudes immediately after exposure. Reflective engagement was also positively associated with follow-up competence and warmth, whereas its association with follow-up attitudes was mediated by post-exposure attitudes. The findings suggest that inclusion-focused advertising may be associated with selective and short-lived shifts in perceived stereotypes and personal attitudes toward athletes with physical disabilities. The study extends disability representation research from broadcast to brand-authored sport communication and highlights the limits of one-off campaigns.