A comprehensive review of chromium contamination in agricultural systems: unraveling its journey from soil to food chain and strategies for safe remediation

Chromium (Cr) contamination in agricultural ecosystems is a critical environmental issue due to its persistence and toxicity, resulting in reduced crop yields and human health risks. The highly mobile and bioavailable hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is particularly toxic to biological systems and is a powerful carcinogen. This review evaluates the sources, speciation, and fate of chromium in soil–plant-food systems, focusing on bioavailability, uptake, distribution and accumulation of chromium in crops. It also reviews the physiological and biochemical impacts of chromium toxicity, with implications for food safety and human health. Remediation strategies, including phytoremediation, bioremediation, nanotechnology and novel chemical and physical methods, are evaluated for efficiency, feasibility and sustainability. Combined remediation approaches, integrating biological and physicochemical treatments, are considered the most efficient approaches for the sustainable remediation of chromium-contaminated soils. Advancements in genetic and OMICS technologies have contributed to a better understanding of chromium tolerance and detoxification, while spatial monitoring through remote sensing and GIS technologies support sustainable management of chromium. Future work should aim to decipher molecular mechanisms of chromium uptake, detoxification, and soil-microbe interactions. Moreover, affordable remediation technologies are needed to avoid inclusion of chromium in the food chain and maintain sustainable agriculture.