Earth-Based Vernacular Architectures and Territorial Sustainability: Comparative Insights from Rural Communities in Mozambique and Ecuador

This article examines earth-based and bio-based vernacular construction systems in selected rural communities in Mozambique and Ecuador. It investigates how local building practices articulate environmental adaptation, cultural continuity, and socioeconomic autonomy in contexts where formal infrastructure and technical support remain limited. The study compares Nhamacola, Casa Banana, and Vinho, near Gorongosa National Park in central Mozambique, with La Vega, El Tingo, and Trapichillo in Catamayo Canton, southern Ecuador. The research adopted a comparative qualitative multiple-case design. The analysis is based on field observation, architectural documentation, measured drawings, photographic records, material characterisation, and semi-structured interviews. In Mozambique, 12 buildings and six semi-structured interviews were documented; in Ecuador, 35 buildings and three semi-structured interviews were documented. Building selection was purposive and based on architectural typology and earthen construction systems. The VerSus framework was adapted as a qualitative and ordinal comparative structure to interpret environmental, sociocultural, and socioeconomic dimensions of sustainability. The findings show that both contexts rely on locally available materials and low-transformation construction processes, but through different technical pathways. In Mozambique, earth is used mainly as infill or coating within lightweight timber or vegetal frames, supporting repair and component replacement. In Ecuador, earth more frequently performs a load-bearing role through adobe and rammed-earth walls, alongside bahareque and mixed construction. Across both contexts, vernacular sustainability depends not on material choice alone, but on relationships among construction techniques, maintenance, settlement organisation, household labour, knowledge transmission, and territorial practices. The cases also reveal distinct vulnerabilities associated with moisture, wind, termites, biological deterioration, seismic exposure, incompatible alterations, and limited institutional recognition.