Development and validation of the Science Self-Efficacy Questionnaire to assess the short-term influence of scientists facilitating outreach

According to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy beliefs are shaped by four sources: Mastery Experience, Vicarious Experience, Verbal Persuasion, and Emotional State. Scientists facilitating outreach activities represent a theoretically distinct and underexplored source of Vicarious Experience and Verbal Persuasion for children, yet no validated instrument has assessed their influence on children's science self-efficacy (SSE). This multi-study research developed and validated the Irish Science Self-Efficacy Children's Questionnaire (IS-SEC-Q), the first SSE instrument tailored to the Irish primary science curriculum and the first to include scientists as potential sources of SSE. Study 1 (n = 92) designed and piloted the instrument using exploratory factor analysis and cognitive interviews. Study 2 (n = 282) examined construct, convergent, and criterion-related validity through confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses and inter-scale correlations. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the four-factor Sources of SSE structure (CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.06), extending its cross-cultural validity from mathematics to primary science. Exploratory factor analysis of the novel scientist-specific items revealed a five-factor solution (67% variance explained), with Verbal Persuasion from Scientists emerging as a distinct factor, suggesting children perceive encouragement from scientists differently from other social models. Good internal consistency was demonstrated across scales, and all inter-scale correlations were significant (p < .01). Cognitive interviews also showed that children can misinterpret Emotional State items. The IS-SEC-Q provides a theoretically grounded and psychometrically validated tool for investigating scientists as social models who may influence children's SSE through vicarious experience and social persuasion. This work has implications for Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy measurement with children, and the design of effective scientist-facilitated outreach programmes.