Feminist Foreign Policy Beyond the West: The Historical Evolution of Mongolian Diplomacy (1911–2026)

Abstract This article examines the historical evolution and contemporary development of feminist foreign policy (FFP) in Mongolia, a small, landlocked state situated between Russia and China. Employing feminist analysis, comparative historical analysis, discourse analysis of official documents, and constructivist norm-entrepreneurship theory, the study traces gender and diplomacy across three periods: the Bogd Khanate (1911–1921), the socialist People’s Republic (1921–1990), and the post-socialist democratic era (1990–2026). It argues that Mongolia’s contemporary feminist diplomacy is not simply an imported Western policy framework but the product of a distinctive historical trajectory combining nomadic traditions of women’s autonomy, socialist-era institutional and educational legacies, democratic gender reforms, and Mongolia’s Third Neighbor strategy. The analysis highlights the contributions of prominent female political and diplomatic leaders and examines major initiatives, including women’s participation in peacekeeping, the 2023 Female Foreign Ministers’ Meeting and Ulaanbaatar Declaration, and the 2024 World Women’s Forum. The findings demonstrate that feminist diplomacy functions simultaneously as a normative commitment and a strategic instrument of soft power, multilateral engagement, and foreign-policy diversification. However, persistent gender-based violence, economic inequality, and limited institutionalization reveal a continuing gap between international feminist diplomacy and domestic outcomes. The article concludes that institutionalizing FFP is essential for its long-term sustainability.