A system of systems review of AI digitalisation and optimisation for sustainable integrated airport baggage handling systems

The sustained growth in air traffic has exposed persistent inefficiencies, operational vulnerabilities, and sustainability challenges within airport baggage handling systems (BHS), particularly under peak demand and disruption scenarios. Although optimisation, simulation, artificial intelligence (AI), digital twins, Internet of Things (IoT), and other digital technologies have advanced substantially, existing research remains largely concentrated on isolated operational functions rather than integrated system-level performance. Studies commonly address scheduling, tracking, routing, screening, and anomaly detection, but often give limited attention to the interdependencies between technical infrastructure, organisational processes, workforce coordination, passenger flows, and real-time operational decision-making. This paper presents a critical review of digitalisation and automation in BHS, examining optimisation methods, AI-enabled systems, simulation approaches, and intelligent operational technologies within broader Airport 4.0 and Airport 5.0 environments. Drawing on a system-of-systems perspective, the review argues that BHS cannot be effectively understood or optimised in isolation from wider airport operations and socio-technical infrastructures. The synthesis shows that while optimisation and AI-driven approaches have improved operational efficiency, predictive capability, and system monitoring, their practical impact is often constrained by narrow operational scope, static assumptions, fragmented interoperability, and limited real-world integration. The review identifies a key gap in the literature: although some integration efforts have emerged, existing frameworks remain limited, fragmented, and insufficiently mature in combining optimisation, intelligent decision-making, real-time data integration, and system-wide coordination. The paper concludes that more coherent system-level approaches are required to support sustainable, resilient, and operationally viable BHS, contributing to broader objectives related to resilient infrastructure, resource efficiency, and sustainable transport systems, particularly SDGs 9 and 11.